Priming

1. What is Priming?

• 在心理学里，启动（priming）指个体对感受到的某个刺激的无意识加工（启动刺激），会促进对随后呈现刺激的加工（目标刺激或靶刺激）。
• 前后两个刺激之间应该有一些共同的属性，它们可以是知觉的，语义的或者是概念的。前后两个刺激属于同种模态时启动效应最好（视觉-视觉）。但不同模态的两种刺激也可以诱发启动效应（听觉-视觉）。
• 启动的这种促进（accessibility）作用，一般可以从知觉，认知和行为的角度进行解释。认知方面，有人认为启动是一种内隐记忆效应（an implicit memory effect）（CTI Reviews, LEARNING and MEMORY）。Bargh认为，启动效应的本质是外在环境刺激和内在的这些环境刺激对应表征之间的联结。

Types of Priming

• 根据启动对刺激加工速度的影响情况，可以分为积极启动和消极启动（positive and negative priming）。积极启动导致加工速度加快，而消极启动导致加工速度减慢。
• 根据启动刺激和目标刺激之间形式的相似性，可以将启动分为知觉启动，概念启动和语义启动（ perceptual, conceptual and semantic priming）。
• 根据启动的方法，可以分为语义启动（ semantic goal priming），工具启动（ instrumental goal priming）和人际启动（ interpersonal goal priming）（马丽丽， 2008）。

2. Paradigms and Measures

2.1 Tasks

1. 词语补全任务（Word Completion Task）
   先给被试一个较长的单词列表。这张表上的单词要足够多，这样被试一时半会儿记不住，也不知道待会要用哪一个单词。然后呢，给被试一个残缺的单词让被试补全，例如_EX_G_ _ 这个单词完全形式为HEXAGON。那些读过单词列表的被试更有可能更快更好地完成填词。Another variant of this task asks participants to complete simple words that could be completed in various ways. For example D_ _ K could be complete as DORK or DARK. Participants responses are dependent not only on whether they had read the word earlier, but also by thematic scheme of the words. For example if they had read the words NIGHT, MOON and SLEEP, they would be more likely to complete it as DARK.
   In these examples, the first list of words serves as the prime to influence later behavior on the word completion task.

2. 词汇判断任务（Lexical Decision Task）
   In this task, participants are told to decide whether a word they are shown is real or made-up. The made up words follow general spelling and phonetic rules (ex. ‘ksjfhd’ would not appear on the test, but ‘blargh’ might). The participants are told to respond as quickly, but as accurately as possible and are scored along these two dimensions. It has been noted that when a participant has seen the real word recently they are faster to classify it as real. Additionally, the classification is also faster if the real word relates thematically to other words the participants have seen recently. For example, if the participants had been studying a list of medically related words they might classify ‘NURSE’ as a real word faster than if they had been studying school related words. The explanation often offered for this is that, when words are read, a ‘schema’ relating those words thematically, is activated in the brain. For example, if you read the words HOMEWORK, STUDY and EXAM, the ‘school’ schema in your brain might be activated. Later, when you are asked to determine whether BOOK is a real word, your brain gets to skip the step in the word-classification process that requires thematic activation and thus the processing speed is faster. In other words, because your brain was already primed to be thinking about school, it was, on some level, already thinking about the word book.

3. 刻板印象（Stereotyping）
   Several studies have shown that priming can have an effect on social behavior as well as cognitive behavior. MotiveMetrics advisor, John Bargh, worked to explore this in a study consisting of three experiments. In the first experiment they primed participants with words related to elderly people, but never mentioned age or disabilities of any kind. They found that these participants actually walked slower when leaving the experiment than did their control group peers. In the second experiment, they found that participants who had been primed with words relating to rudeness were more likely to interrupt the experimenter, and in the third experiment they found that “participants for whom the African American stereotype was primed subliminally reacted with more hostility to a vexatious request of the experimenter.” Priming is also believed to be a potential mechanism behind stereotype threat.

2.2 Measures

• Behavioral indexes: reaction time, correction rates
• ERP N400

3. History of Priming

behavioral priming

• Bargh认为启动研究，最早源于 Karl Lashley关于增加行为反应可能性机制的研究，即行为启动（behavioral priming）。

1971 First empirical study of semantic priming

• Origin：语义启动效应是由Meyer等发现的（Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971）
• Definition：启动效应(priming effects)指启动刺激(prime)对目标刺激(target)认知加工的促进作用。例如，在词汇判断任务中，将“苹果”作为启动刺激时，它会促进被试对 “菠萝”(与苹果相关的目标刺激)的判断反应（反应时更快），但以“天空”（与苹果无关的目标刺激）作为启动刺激时，却不会促进被试对“菠萝”的判断反应。
• Design: lexical decision task:
• Comments: Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971) provided one of the original demonstrations of priming occurred in a lexical decision task (词汇判断任务) in which a series of decisions is made about whether letter strings are words or not. In their classic experiment, these researchers measured response times as people made lexical decisions (determining whether or not two letter strings, presented simultaneously, were both words). In conditions in which both stimuli were words, some of the pairs were related (e.g., BREAD and BUTTER) and others were unrelated (e.g., CHAIR and FLOWER). The key finding from this investigation was that response time was faster for related words than for unrelated words
• Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90(2), 227.

1975 First theory of semantic priming effects——the spreading-activation theory (语义启动的激活扩散理论)

Comments

• How is our knowledge organized?
• 
• The semantic priming effect was explained by a mechanism termed spreading activation that had been proposed by Collins and Loftus in a 1975 paper that updated the concepts originally set out by Collins and Quillian. In this new view, semantic memory was based on a network that was not strictly hierarchical and for which intersection search was not a suitable search mechanism. Instead Collins and Loftus proposed when the memory representation for a concept is activated the activation spreads to neighboring stored representations. If such a neighbor is presented as the next letter string in a lexical decision (or other) task, it will be identified sooner because it was partially activated by the prime word even before being presented. An underlying assumption is that related words are stored nearer one another (as in Collins and Quillian) than unrelated so that priming is proportional to semantic relatedness.
• Weakness 1: Results may be due to demand characteristics
• Weakness 2: Folk tale is written in an unusual style, and so is not representative of everyday memory tasks. *********** **Paper information
• Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82(6), 407-428.
• Abstract:
  Presents a spreading-activation theory of human semantic processing, which can be applied to a wide range of recent experimental results. The theory is based on M. R. Quillian’s (1967) theory of semantic memory search and semantic preparation, or priming. In conjunction with this, several misconceptions concerning Quillian’s theory are discussed. A number of additional assumptions are proposed for his theory to apply it to recent experiments. The present paper shows how the extended theory can account for results of several production experiments by E. F. Loftus, J. F. Juola and R. C. Atkinson’s (1971) multiple-category experiment, C. Conrad’s (1972) sentence-verification experiments, and several categorization experiments on the effect of semantic relatedness and typicality by K. J. Holyoak and A. L. Glass (1975), L. J. Rips et al (1973), and E. Rosch (1973). The paper also provides a critique of the Rips et al model for categorization judgments.

1977 Immediate and delayed effects of unobtrusive exposure

• Higgins, E.T.;Rholes, W.S.;Jones, C.R.(1977). Category accessibility and impression formation’‘Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13:141-154.
• Abstract: The present study examined the immediate and delayed effects of unobtrusive exposure to personality trait terms (e.g., “reckless”, “persistent”) on subjects’ subsequent judgments and recollection of information about another person. Before reading a description of a stimulus person, subjects were unobtrusively exposed to either positive or negative trait terms that either could or could not be used to characterize this person. When the trait terms were applicable to the description of the stimulus person, subjects’ characterizations and evaluations of the person reflected the denotative and evaluative aspects of the trait categories activated by the prior exposure to these terms. However, the absence of any effects for nonapplicable trait terms suggested that exposure to trait terms with positive or negative associations was not in itself sufficient to determine attributions and evaluations. Prior verbal exposure had little effect on reproduction of the descriptions. Moreover, no reliable difference in either evaluation or reproduction was found between subjects who overtly characterized the stimulus person and those who did not. Exposure to applicable trait terms had a greater delayed than immediate effect on subjects’ evaluations of the stimulus person, suggesting that subjects may have discounted their categorizations of the stimulus person when making their immediate evaluations. The implications of individual and situational variation in the accessibility of different categories for judgments of self and others are considered.

1983 Implicit and explicit memory

• Comments
  The claim that implicit and explicit memory tests rely on different mechanisms is justified only if some difference in remembering can be found besides the impression that one is conscious and the other is not. An important experiment in this regard was conducted by Larry Jacoby (1983). The experiment consisted of two phases that were administered a week apart.
• Jacoby, L.L. (1983) ‘‘Remembering the data: analyzing interactive processes in reading’‘Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22:485-508.
• Abstract:
  Past experience can facilitate subsequent perceptual activities as well as serve as the basis for recognition memory. However, the memory underlying perception is commonly assumed to be more “general” and, consequently, to preserve less information about the initial event than does the memory that underlies recognition for a specific episode. In contrast, experiments are performed which demonstrate that perceptual identification and recognition memory both rely on memory for single prior processing episodes. In these experiments, the subjects’ reliance on data-driven rather than conceptually driven processing of a word was changed by varying the context in which the word was read. A greater degree of data-driven processing of a word, such as having a subject read the word out of context, facilitated later perceptual identification of that word. Conversely, a greater degree of conceptually driven processing of a word, such as having the subject generate the word from a conceptual clue, resulted in better recognition memory and less facilitation of perceptual identification. This sensitivity of perceptual identification to the balance between data-driven and conceptually driven processing in a single prior processing episode provides a means of analyzing interactive processes in reading.

#$ 1985 The perceptual representation systems

• In the mid 1980’s Graf published a series of papers that compared amnesic patients on priming and episodic recall tasks. The results led to the theory (Graf and Schacter, 1985) that implicit and explicit memory tasks tap into distinct brain systems. Priming effects are said to arise in the perceptual representation systems (PRS) that permit us to translate sensory inputs into perceptions of objects, faces, or words. The visual components of the PRS are located in the occipital and posterior temporal lobes. Episodic memories are formed and retrieved by the system that Mishkin refers to as the cognitive memory system that includes structures in the medial temporal lobe, thalamus, basal forebrain cholinergic system, and frontal lobes. Damage to any component of this circuit produces amnesia: a deficit of episodic memory. In the studies published by Graf it was shown that amnesic patients have normal priming, which implies that implicit memory survives amnesia.

• Graf, P; Schacter, D.L. (1985)’‘Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects’’ Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11:501-518.
• Abstract:
  Two experiments, with 64 undergraduates (Exp I) and 12 20–67 yr old amnesic patients and 2 control groups (12 22–81 yr olds and 24 undergraduates with no memory deficits [Exp II]), investigated whether repetition priming effects on a word comparison completion task are influenced by new associations between unrelated word pairs that were established during a single study trial. On the word completion task, Ss were presented with the initial 3 letters of the response words from the study list pairs and completed these fragments with the first words that came to mind. The fragments were shown either with the paired words from the study list (same context) or with other words (different context). Both experiments showed a larger priming effect in the same-context condition than in the different-context condition, but only with a study task that required elaborative processing of the word pairs. This effect was observed with college students and amnesic patients, suggesting that word completion performance is mediated by implicit memory for new associations that is independent of explicit recollection.

1983——1988 Early evidence of affective priming

• 定义：启动刺激与靶刺激(启靶刺激)具有相同的效价时（例如“阳光——母爱”、 “蟑螂——死亡”）， 相比具有不同效价的启靶刺激 (如：“蟑螂——母爱”、 “阳光——死亡”)， 同种效价的启动刺激会促进靶刺激 (“母爱”、 “死亡”)的加工（如更快和更准确），这通常就被称为情感启动效应。
• 流程图

1983 and 1988 Negative Results

• Priming paradigms have been used previously to ask whether affect influences associations in a mood-congruent manner. The assumption was that mood serves as a node in memory that is linked to other valence-congruent concept nodes. If so, positive moods should activate positive concepts and negative moods should activate negative concepts. Based on these assumptions, Clark et al. (1983) induced happy or sad moods before having participants judge whether or not good, bad, or neutral letter strings were words in a lexical decision judgment task. They expected that if moods activate valence-congruent concepts, then happy persons would be faster to judge positive words and sad persons would be faster to judge negative words. Contrary to expectations, mood did not influence the accessibility of valence consistent targets (see also Challis & Krane, 1988, for similar results).
• Reference: Aviezer, H., et al. (2012). “Body Cues, Not Facial Expressions, Discriminate Between Intense Positive and Negative Emotions.” Science 338(6111): 1225-1229.

1986 Positive Results

• Fazio等人最早发现了情绪启动效应，并认为这种效应可以作为态度能被自动激活的证据。
• Fazio, R. H., et al. (1986). “On the automatic activation of attitudes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50(2): 229.

1990 1996 and 2001 John A. Bargh 无意识目标的启动

1990 目标自动激活模型(auto-motive model)

• Bargh (1990)提出的目标自动激活模型(auto-motive model) 认为：无意识目标与社会态度、刻板印象和图式等一样, 是行为的满意状态或结果在个体头脑中的一种表征, 包含有目标设定、追求情境和追求手段等内容。这些内容能够被环境中的刺激自动激活, 在意识不到的情况下影响人的心理和行为。
• 无意识目标启动的概念和其他心理表征的启动不同, 无意识目标启动能够促使带有动机性的行为出现, 而且启动线索的影响不会随着时间的推移而消失。

1996 读某些单词让人变粗鲁或步速放缓的实验

• 启动方法：句子整理任务（Scrambled Sentence Test）(Srull & Wyer, 1979)。不告诉被试实验的真实目的，而是告诉被试该实验是针对语言能力的一项测试。被试需要从呈现的5个单词中选取4个，重新排列成一个有意义的句子。
• 实验一为被试间实验，34个人随机分成三组，“粗鲁组”，“文明组”和控制组。每组分别呈现30个试次，粗鲁和文明组的30个试次有一半是启动刺激。实验的大体流程是让被试做完启动任务之后去另外一个房间。另外的房间里有两名研究者，在被试来了之后假装没有看到被试，一直聊天。因变量就是被试从进门直到受不了无视打断两人谈话的时间。

• 实验二。研究者然后直到实验对象离开屋子后，真正的实验才开始。一名研究生待在走廊上，她的外套里面藏着一只秒表。她装作等着开会的样子，但实际上是一名研究人员（该研究者并不知道屋内被试的操作）。离测试室门口30多英尺（差不多10米）的走廊上，贴着一条银色胶带，她需要测量被试者走过这段距离的时间。

• 实验人员要求被试重新排列的那些单词并不是随机的，尽管看上去的确如此（在每位被试者实验后的采访中，这一点得到了确认）。它们是类似于“宾果游戏”（bingo）、“福罗里达州”（Florida）、“针织品”（knits）、“皱纹”（wrinkles）、“痛苦”（bitter）和“单独”（alone）这样的一串单词。当你读这一串词时，你几乎都能想象出一个弯腰驼背的老人在公寓里轻轻地四处走动，同时还抱怨电视节目的情景。对照组的人则重新排列那些不会让人产生特定联想的单词。在比较两组人的步行时间时，研究者发现，总体而言，实验组走得比对照组慢。纸页上的单词让他们举止像老年人。

2001 无意识地加工与目标相关的词汇会促进目标行为的产生

• 启动方法：句子整理任务（Scrambled Sentence Test）
• 在该任务中，被试需要从5个顺序错乱的词汇中选取4个组成语法上正确的句子。依据实验条件的不同，词汇与合作目标语义相关（实验组）或者不相关（控制组）。随后，所有被试完成需要合作的资源分配任务。研究发现，实验组被试比控制组被试表现出更多的合作行为。重要的是，实验后的调查发现，被试并没有认识到两个任务间的联系，也不认为启动任务会影响自己的行为。当研究者告知真实的研究假设后，被试会感到惊讶，这表明研究者通过语义启动的方式无意识的启动了被试的合作目标。 ****** **reference
• Bargh, J. A. (1990). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 93–130). New York: Guilford Press.
• J. A. Bargh, M. Chen and L. Burrows. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 230-244 pdf
• Bargh, J. A., et al. (2001). “The automated will: nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81(6): 1014.
• 果壳链接：https://www.guokr.com/article/436704/

2006和2010 John A. Bargh对goal priming的综述

1. Bargh, J.A. (2006)’‘What have we been priming all these years? On the development, mechanisms, and ecology of nonconscious social behavior’‘European Journal of Social Psychology, 36:147–168.
   Abstract:
   Priming or nonconscious activation of social knowledge structures has produced a plethora of rather amazing findings over the past 25 years: priming a single social concept such as aggressive can have multiple effects across a wide array of psychological systems, such as perception, motivation, behavior, and evaluation. But we may have reached childhood’s end, so to speak, and need now to move on to research questions such as how these multiple effects of single primes occur (the generation problem); next, how these multiple simultaneous priming influences in the environment get distilled into nonconscious social action that has to happen serially, in real time (the reduction problem). It is suggested that models of complex conceptual structures (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), language use in real-life conversational settings (Clark, 1996), and speech production (Dell, 1986) might hold the key for solving these two important ‘second-generation’ research problems.

2. Bargh, J. A. and E. Morsella (2010). “Unconscious behavioral guidance systems.” Then a miracle occurs: Focusing on behavior in social psychological theory and research: 89-118.

2008 Aarts针对goal priming提出了affective-motivational route

Aarts, H., et al. (2008). “Goal priming and the affective-motivational route to nonconscious goal pursuit.” Social cognition 26(5): 555-577.

2014 Cesario

• Cesario, J. (2014)’‘Priming, Replication, and the Hardest Science’‘Perspectives on Psychological Science,9:40–48.
• Abstract:
  Concerns have been raised recently about the replicability of behavioral priming effects, and calls have been issued to identify priming methodologies with effects that can be obtained in any context and with any population. I argue that such expectations are misguided and inconsistent with evolutionary understandings of the brain as a computational organ. Rather, we should expect priming effects to be highly sensitive to variations in experimental features and subject populations. Such variation does not make priming effects frivolous or capricious but instead can be predicted a priori. However, absent theories specifying the precise contingencies that lead to such variation, failures to replicate another researcher’s findings will necessarily be ambiguous with respect to the inferences that can be made. Priming research is not yet at the stage where such theories exist, and therefore failures are uninformative at the current time. Ultimately, priming researchers themselves must provide direct replications of their own effects; researchers have been deficient in meeting this responsibility and have contributed to the current state of confusion. The recommendations issued in this article reflect concerns both with the practice of priming researchers and with the inappropriate expectations of researchers who have failed to replicate others’ priming effects.

4. Application of Priming

• 健忘症（Amnesia）
  Priming studies have been conducted on patients with amnesia. Amnesiacs have difficulty remembering daily events due to damage caused to their medial temporal lobe. Yet tests indicate that they perform as well as patients with full memory capacity when it comes to perceptual priming. Priming enables amnesiac patients to successfully complete word-stem completion tests but they are unable to do so when asked to complete the test without priming.
• 市场营销（Marketing）

5. Typical experimental studies

5.1 阈下情绪启动

• 吕勇2010，不同愉悦度面孔阈下情绪启动效应：来自 ERP 的证据
• 吕勇2014，时间间隔对面部表情唤醒度阈下情绪启动的影响

Basic terms

• 情绪启动（affective priming）指个体先行加工具有情绪意义的启动刺激后，在对其后靶刺激的情绪进行判断时也蒙上了与启动刺激相同的情绪色彩( Murphy ＆ Zajonc，1993) 。
• 阈下情绪启动 (subliminal affective priming)指当情绪启动刺激呈现时间非常短的情况下，如几十毫秒，十几毫秒甚至几毫秒，人无法有意识地觉察到启动刺激，但依然表现出情绪启动效应。Pessoa (2005)指出，在没有掩蔽之前，启动刺激呈现时间达到30ms时达到个体觉察（awareness）的阈限；而Pessoa 等使用信号检测的方法(2005)证实, 即使在非常短的时长内(如, 17 ms)呈现情绪图片刺激, 仍可能提供大量信息促进部分被试对受掩蔽恐惧刺激产生意识(或产生部分的意识)。而在大量关于阈下情绪启动效应的既有研究中, 阈下掩蔽刺激的呈现时长都远远超过了 17 ms。
• 阈下情绪启动与阈上情绪启动相比，具有一些自身的特点：
  1. 对记忆系统的激活作用更小——阈下启动效应在大于100ms时迅速减弱（吕2014研究表明阈下最强SOA在300ms），而阈上启动效应最强的SOA在400ms。
  2. 阈下情绪启动的作用比阈上启动更大（从时间进程上看并不如此）。

研究方法

• 无意识情绪研究多采用掩蔽技术与阈下情绪启动范式相结合的方法以更彻底地消除个体对情绪刺激的意识。
• 掩蔽技术主要包括背景掩蔽、三明治掩蔽和能量掩蔽三种范式。目前应用最广泛是就是背景掩蔽技术。背景掩蔽指最初呈现的刺激(即启动刺激), 很快被接着呈现的刺激(即掩蔽刺激)所掩蔽。“掩蔽刺激”被认为会干扰感觉皮层中关于“启动刺激”的加工进程, 由此阻碍甚至取代关于启动刺激的表征 (Enns & Di Lollo, 2000)。
• 怎样去测量阈下受掩蔽刺激的意识水平或意识程度？
  1. 主观测量法（(subjective measures）采用被试自我报告的方法, 测量被试是否意识到受掩蔽的阈下情绪刺激；
  2. 客观测量(objective measures)是指, 通过信号检测论的方法考察被试对受掩蔽阈下情绪刺激的辨别力, 测量被试是否对受掩蔽的阈下情绪刺激产生了一定程度的意识(Wiens & Öhman, 2007)
• 吕勇2010的研究中，启动刺激（愉悦-不愉悦面孔）呈现20ms，紧接着呈现一个800ms的靶刺激（马赛克的中性面孔）。对被试意识程度的测量使用了主观客观相结合的方法，既对被试进行了意识探测的访谈，也利用信号检测论制作了意识探测程序检验被试是否能意识到快速呈现的启动刺激。

研究问题和结果

• 总的来说，两篇文章所解决的问题为：从维度论出发，研究情绪的愉悦度（吕勇2010）和唤醒度（吕勇2010）两个维度是否能单独产生启动效应。吕勇2014研究还加入了时间间隔这一变量。
• 实验设计和流程如下：
  1. 被试内设计（高低愉悦度之间比较）。吕勇2010：注视点-启动刺激（20ms）-靶刺激（800ms）
     
  2. 混合设计（组内：唤醒度；组间：时间间隔）。吕勇2014：注视点-启动刺激（12ms）-掩蔽刺激+时间间隔（200-700ms）-靶刺激（？unclear）
• 行为结果上来看，两个维度都产生了阈下情绪启动效应。
• 吕勇2010还采集了ERP数据。ERP结果表明 N1 和 P2 两个早期成分对情绪面孔愉悦度敏感的ERP成分, 它们都在启动刺激是低愉悦度的面孔时波幅更大。P2 后的脑电成分在两种实验条件下没有出现差别, 这与某些采用阈上呈现情绪面孔的实验所得到的结果不同(Schupp et al., 2004)。研究者认为, 这些成分与有意识加工有关, 而与阈下情绪信息的加工无关。
• 吕勇2014对时间间隔这一变量在不同唤醒度水平上分析发现。只有负性启动组，发现了唤醒度和时间间隔的交互作用。具体而言，启动刺激是低唤醒和中唤醒时，时间间隔的主效应都不显著。只有当启动刺激是高唤醒时，700ms的时间间隔条件下被试对靶刺激判断的值显著低于300ms的时间间隔条件。正性条件组虽然交互作用不显著，也在高唤醒条件下，当时间间隔为300ms时，被试对靶刺激的唤醒度判断的值最大。注意，效价之所以没有列为一个自变量，是因为刺激材料太少。

研究结论

为情绪维度论提供了证据。具体而言，前人研究得出效价的阈下情绪启动效应在 SOA大于 100ms 时 迅 速 减 弱 的 结 论 ( Greenwald ＆ Klioger， 1995) 。本实验结果表明， 唤醒度的阈下情绪启动效应在时间间隔为 300ms 时达到最大， 时间间隔大于 500ms 时才会减弱或消失。这表明情绪效价和唤醒度的加工具有不同的机制， 从而为唤醒度是独立于效价的另一个情绪维度提供了进一步的证据

个人疑问

• 情绪启动效应的作用时间很短，虽然前人研究结论不统一，但普遍在1S以内。
• 为什么目标启动效应的时间都较长？例如Bargh等人的无意识目标追求研究。可能情绪本身持续的时间就段，而目标本身就是一个作用时间更长的心理表征？
• 目标启动时间的研究：Aarts, H., et al. (2004). “Goal contagion: perceiving is for pursuing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87(1): 23.

5.2 Imaging unconscious semantic priming

1. 用的数字。 Dehaene, S., et al. (1998). “Imaging unconscious semantic priming.” Nature 395(6702): 597.
   

2. 用的字母。 Naccache, L. and S. Dehaene (2001). “Unconscious semantic priming extends to novel unseen stimuli.” Cognition 80(3): 215-229.
   

3. 用的情绪面孔。Nomura, M., et al. (2004). “Functional association of the amygdala and ventral prefrontal cortex during cognitive evaluation of facial expressions primed by masked angry faces: an event-related fMRI study.” NeuroImage 21(1): 352-363.
   

4. 用的几何图形。Lau, H. C. and R. E. Passingham (2007). “Unconscious activation of the cognitive control system in the human prefrontal cortex.” Journal of Neuroscience 27(21): 5805-5811.

5.3 ERP evidence of unconscious priming

1. 探索时间注意是否能增强掩蔽言语启动。 Kiefer, M. and D. Brendel (2006). “Attentional modulation of unconscious “automatic” processes: Evidence from event-related potentials in a masked priming paradigm.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18(2): 184-198.

2. 抑制控制是否可以无意识发生。 Hughes, G., et al. (2009). “Unconscious priming of a no-go response.” Psychophysiology 46(6): 1258-1269.

5.4 Review on the perspective of cognitive neuroscience

1. Baars, B. J. (2002). “The conscious access hypothesis: origins and recent evidence.” Trends Cogn Sci 6(1): 47-52.
2. Schacter, D. L., Dobbins, I. G., & Schnyer, D. M. (2004). Specificity of priming: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(11), 853.

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References：

1. https://prezi.com/ep5dwcwbq2dl/the-history-of-priming/
2. 王青, & 杨玉芳. (2002). 语义启动模型以及启动范围. 心理科学进展, 10(2), 154-161.
3. Lexical Decision http://opl.apa.org/Experiments/About/AboutLexicalDecision.aspx
4. 郭桃梅, & 彭聃龄. (2003). 从语义启动效应看事件相关电位n400的实质. 心理科学, 26(4), 750-750.
5. 情感启动行为研究概述
6. Neural correlates of cross-domain affective priming
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)
8. What is Priming? A Psychological Look at Priming & Consumer Behavior http://blog.motivemetrics.com/What-is-Priming-A-Psychological-Look-at-Priming-Consumer-Behavior