Emotion elicitation and measurement

  • 实验室中诱导积极情绪的方法大致可分为两类:外部诱导和内部诱导。外部诱导指的是将特定的情绪刺激作用于被试(如, 看情绪图片或者电影等), 进而使被试产生特定的情绪状态。 内部诱导指的是通过实验人员的指导来激活被试记忆中的情绪材料, 进而诱发被试的情绪状态(如, 自传体记忆, 情景想象等) (孔艳娜, 2013)。

  • 目前做情绪刺激做得深入且系统的两个团队,一个是美国的Lang(Peter Lang)团队,一个是中国的罗跃嘉老师团队。Lang团队自九几年开始系统地开发了不同通道的情绪诱发刺激,例如视觉的IAPS,听觉的IADS,语言的ANEW等;并且根据情绪维度理论开发了测量情绪的SAM量表。然而文化差异可能会对情绪刺激的诱发效果产生影响。为了避免这一问题,罗跃嘉老师团队系统地开发了本土化的情绪刺激系统,包括视觉的CAPS和听觉的CADS等等。Lang团队的实验室全名为Center for the Study of Emotion & Attention (CSEA),所有lang团队所开发的情绪刺激都可以在其实验室网站上进行申请;罗跃嘉老师团队的情绪刺激需要发邮箱给作者申请。

  • 其次,需要注意不同研究团队关注的情绪诱发效果是不一样的。例如专注面孔识别的团队,可能关注的是面孔情绪的识别率;而专注于情绪调节的团队(James Gross),关注的是情绪诱发的强度(效价和唤醒度,基本情绪强度); 而专注于动机研究的团队(Gable Philip 和 Harmon- Jones Eddies),则关注诱发被试的趋近或回避动机。所以同一种材料,甚至同一个情绪刺激,可能测量的角度完全不一样。

1. Experimental Stimuli(外部诱发)

  • 实验中所用的情绪刺激材料,根据呈现的方式,可以分为视觉刺激(图片、文本和视频)、声音库、触觉、嗅觉等。
  • 其中图片库根据呈现的内容,又可以分为面孔表情库,肢体表情库,以及用途最广泛的多场景情绪库。
  • 四大视觉刺激库: Within visual stimuli sets, there are four standardized databases which contain general content, static affective visual stimuli: the International Affective Picture System (IAPS; Lang et al. 1999), the Geneva Affective Picture Database (GAPED; Dan-Glauser and Scherer 2011), the Emotional Picture System (EmoPicS; Wessa et al. 2010), and the Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS; Marchewka et al. 2014).
  1. 情绪面孔库
    • 中国-罗跃嘉老师团队 CAFS。照片为黑底纯脸部照片(头发耳朵脖子都扣除了),人种为亚裔(中国被试)。
    • 欧美 Ekman 60 Faces Test. Facial expressions of emotion: Stimuli and tests (FEEST)
    • 情绪国际人脸库NimStim,共657张图片,由康奈尔大学医学院Nim Tottenham教授开发。照片为白底上半身照片,多数人种为欧美人种(81%),少数亚裔美国人(7%)。与CAPS不同的地方,这个库增加了张嘴的表情图片。Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., Marcus, D. J., Westerlund, A., Casey, B., & Nelson, C. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168(3), 242–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006
    • Krumhuber, E. G., et al. (2017). “A review of dynamic datasets for facial expression research.” Emotion Review 9(3): 280-292.
  2. 情绪视频库
    • 中国:周仁来老师课题组出品,Deng, Y., et al. (2017). “A New Standardized Emotional Film Database for Asian Culture.” Frontiers in Psychology 8(1941).
    • 外国:Gilman, T. L., et al. (2017). “A film set for the elicitation of emotion in research: A comprehensive catalog derived from four decades of investigation.” Behavior Research Methods 49(6): 2061-2082.
    • 中国-清华大学刘永进老师课题组 Liu, Y.-J., Yu, M., Zhao, G., Song, J., Ge, Y., & Shi, Y. (2018). Real-Time Movie-Induced Discrete Emotion Recognition from EEG Signals. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 9(4), 550–562. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAFFC.2017.2660485
  3. 情绪图片库
    • 中国-罗跃嘉老师团队:CAPS。白露, 马慧, 黄宇霞, & 罗跃嘉. (2005). 中国情绪图片系统的编制——在 46 名中国大学生中的试用. 中国心理卫生杂志, 19(11), 719–722.
    • Lang团队IAPS:Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1999). International affective picture system (IAPS): Instruction manual and affective ratings. The center for research in psychophysiology, University of Florida.
    • 开放情绪标准图片库(OASIS)是近些年新开发的一个情绪刺激库。Kurdi, B., Lozano, S., & Banaji, M. R. (2017). Introducing the open affective standardized image set (OASIS). Behavior research methods, 49(2), 457-470.
  4. 情感词汇系统
    • 中国-罗跃嘉老师团队:ChineseAffectiveWordsSystem (CAWS):王一牛, et al. (2008). “汉语情感词系统的初步编制及评定.” 中国心理卫生杂志 22(8): 608-612.
    • Lang团队ANEW
  5. 情感声音系统
    • 中国-罗跃嘉老师团队: 刘涛生, et al. (2006). “本土化情绪声音库的编制和评定.” 心理科学 29(2): 406-408.
    • Lang团队IADS
  6. 情绪肢体动作库
    • Atkinson, A. P., Dittrich, W. H., Gemmell, A. J., & Young, A. W. (2004). Emotion Perception from Dynamic and Static Body Expressions in Point-Light and Full-Light Displays. Perception, 33(6), 717–746. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5096 这个库把脸给遮住了,只用肢体动作的轮廓来诱发常见的基本情绪。
    • Zhang, M., Yu, L., Zhang, K., Du,B., Zhan, B., Chen, S., . . . Luo, W. (2020). Kinematic dataset of actorsexpressing emotions. Scientific Data, 7, 292.doi:10.1038/s41597-020-00635-7. 这个库目前暂时只有抽象的肢体运动数据,适合计算机搞BCI,不适合情绪诱发。
    • From boxology to scientific theories: On the emerging field of emotional action sciences
    • Gunes, H., & Piccardi, M. (2006, August). A bimodal face and body gesture database for automatic analysis of human nonverbal affective behavior. In 18th International conference on pattern recognition (ICPR’06) (Vol. 1, pp. 1148-1153). IEEE. 包含整体的人体情绪,又同时区分了肢体和面部表情。材料类型为视频(9GB,1900条),主要用途为情感计算。但是作者没有在专业的摄影棚拍摄,道具简陋,导致背景布上有很多褶皱,而且背景也不完善。
    • Bänziger, T., Pirker, H., & Scherer, K. (2006, May). GEMEP-GEneva Multimodal Emotion Portrayals: A corpus for the study of multimodal emotional expressions. In Proceedings of LREC (Vol. 6, pp. 15-019).

1.1 Tips on selecting emotional stimuli

  • 考虑人群差异(年龄,性别,种族等等)。例如,IAPS和CAPS图片所诱发的情绪强度较高,会给人带来较为强烈的情绪感受。因此,对于儿童等认知调节能力发育不完全的群体,高强度的情绪图片很可能是不适宜的,有可能让孩子产生心理阴影;而成年群体的自我调节能力已经发育完善,可以从情绪刺激中恢复出来。也可能存在某种情绪刺激对某类人群具有很强的情绪诱发效果,而在其他人群中则没有效果。
  • 考虑通道之间的差异以及单独通道的局限性。不同感觉通道的情绪刺激,可能产生不同情绪强度的体验(感知觉-认知机制不同),也可能涉及不同的生理(眼睛 VS 耳朵)-神经机制(枕叶-杏仁核 VS 颞叶-杏仁核)。
  • 考虑年代。时代特征会产生不同的群体性情绪记忆。因此每个情绪刺激库,都会有其独特的时代特征,也可以说起时代的局限性。为了避免这一问题,情绪刺激库需要与时俱进,以便适合当代人群的群体性情绪记忆。例如Lang团队开发的IAPS一直在更新,最新版本是2008版本。
  • 考虑不同类别刺激之间的相互影响,目前我知道的是关于肢体动作如何影响人们对面孔的认知: * Meeren, H. K. M., van Heijnsbergen, C. C. R. J., & de Gelder, B. (2005). Rapid perceptual integration of facial expression and emotional body language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(45), 16518–16523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0507650102 * Aviezer, H., Trope, Y., & Todorov, A. (2012). Body cues, not facial expressions, discriminate between intense positive and negative emotions. Science, 338(6111), 1225-1229.

1.2 面孔VS图片的大脑激活效果

  • 2001年wild有一篇文章,对比的同强度表情和图片,面孔的全脑激活要少于图片的。
  • Britton, J. C., Taylor, S. F., Sudheimer, K. D., & Liberzon, I. (2006). Facial expressions and complex IAPS pictures: common and differential networks. Neuroimage, 31(2), 906-919. 但这篇文章说面孔激活效果更好。 * 其实关键还在于选用图片库的质量高低。

1.3. Naturalistic Stimuli

  • Naturalistic stimuli such as movies, music, and spoken and written stories elicit strong emotions
  • 自然范式,使用生活环境中本来存在的刺激形式来诱发心理变化。

1.4 特殊人群情绪诱发

儿童情绪诱发

Developmental Affective Photo System (DAPS) was established for children 7–9 years old only (Cordon et al. 2013) and features valence, arousal, and complexity scores.

  1. Hajcak & Dennis, 2009, Dennis and Hajcak (2009), Solomon and colleagues (2012), DeCicco and colleagues (2012), and DeCicco et al. (2014) 以及一些国内研究(张妮等 2022)都使用IAPS图片进行了积极和消极情绪的诱发。消极图片以威胁性(如蛇、蜘蛛)、厌恶性情绪图片为主。使用的IAPS图片编码如下,每种图片各30张;
    • The IAPS numbers for unpleasant pictures in the passive viewing task were 1050, 1120, 1201, 1300, 1321, 1930, 2120, 2130, 2688, 2780, 2810, 2900, 3022, 3230, 3280, 5970, 6190, 6300, 6370, 7380, 9050, 9250, 9421, 9470, 9480, 9490, 9582, 9594, 9600, and 9611.
    • The IAPS numbers for pleasant pictures in the passive viewing task were 1460, 1463, 1601, 1610, 1710, 1750, 1811, 1920, 1999, 2070, 2091, 2165, 2224, 2311, 2340, 2345, 2791, 4603, 5831, 7325, 7330, 7400, 7502, 8031, 8330, 8380, 8461, 8490, 8496, and 8620.
    • The IAPS numbers for neutral pictures in the passive viewing task were 5220, 5711, 5740, 5750, 5800, 5820, 7000, 7002, 7004, 7006, 7009, 7010, 7025, 7031, 7035, 7041, 7050, 7080, 7090, 7100, 7140, 7150, 7175, 7190, 7224, 7233, 7235, 7236, 7595, and 7950.

使用CAPS图片 潘婷婷, 桑标, 邓欣媚, & 王磊. (2019). 汉族和内地新疆青少年情绪反应性和情绪调节效应的比较(英文). 中国临床心理学杂志, 27(05), 989–996.

  1. developmentally-appropriate pictures, what is it? How to determine it ?
  • McRae 等人2012年的做法,让父母来选择给孩子观看哪些图片:Different numbers of trials were given to allow parents to screen all 60 eligible negative pictures and exclude up to 12 pictures, creating different sets of pictures for each child and adolescent.
  1. 下面这两篇fmri文章同时使用了IAPS图片以及一些内部未公开发表的图片来诱发儿童情绪。
    • Belden, A. C., Luby, J. L., Pagliaccio, D., & Barch, D. M. (2014). Neural activation associated with the cognitive emotion regulation of sadness in healthy children. Developmental cognitive neuroscience, 9, 136-147.
    • McRae, K., Gross, J. J., Weber, J., Robertson, E. R., Sokol-Hessner, P., Ray, R. D., … & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). The development of emotion regulation: an fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal in children, adolescents and young adults. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 7(1), 11-22.
  2. 使用儿童相关的视频片段来诱发
    • Coulombe, B. R., Rudd, K. L., & Yates, T. M. (2019). Children’s physiological reactivity in emotion contexts and prosocial behavior. Brain and behavior, 9(10), e01380.
    • Parsafar, P., & Davis, E. L. (2019). Intrapersonal emotion regulation processes influence what children remember about their emotional experiences. Child development, 90(6), 1935-1951. *
  3. 注意儿童的情绪评价手段。一般的SAM问题较多。情绪刺激的唤醒度和效价评价方式中,自评小人(self-assessment manikin, SAM; Lang, 1994)被认为比XX更有效。然而,在一个25名儿童(5-8岁)参加的情绪实验中,只有11位儿童理解了SAM唤醒度评分,12位儿童理解了SAM唤醒度评分(Hajcak & Dennis, 2009)。SAM在此研究中的成功率尚不足一半,普通的评分方法成功率更加堪忧。这提示我们当前主流的情绪刺激评分方法很可能不适用于儿童群体。考虑到动画作品在儿童和青少年中的接受度较高

  4. 开发高效的儿童和青少年情绪评价方法??? Hayashi 等人在2016年基于卡通形象对SAM进行了改进,开发了emoti-SAM,比SAM更受孩子们欢迎。

2. 情绪诱发效果测量

  • 根据情绪维度理论,测量效价和唤醒度等指标: Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Measuring emotion: The Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25(0005-7916 (Print)), 49–59.
  • 根据基本情绪理论,测量基本情绪的诱发强度,e.g., how negative do you fell?
  • 情绪的诱发后,持续时间有多久?How long can an emotional state last after emotion elicitation: 1. https://www.researchgate.net/post/After_emotion_elicitation_how_long_can_the_emotional_responses_last 2. https://www.quora.com/Clinical-Psychology-Is-it-true-that-emotions-only-last-90-seconds 3. 负性情绪比积极情绪持续的时间更长 https://www.quora.com/Why-do-negative-emotions-last-longer-than-positive-emotions * Brosschot, J. F. and J. F. Thayer (2003). “Heart rate response is longer after negative emotions than after positive emotions.” International Journal of Psychophysiology 50(3): 181-187.

Experimental Methods for Inducing Basic Emotions

  • Siedlecka, E., & Denson, T. F. (2019). Experimental methods for inducing basic emotions: A qualitative review. Emotion Review, 11(1), 87-97.
  • 五大类诱发情绪的实验方法:
    • 视觉情绪图片或视频
    • 听觉音乐 Krumhansl, C. L. (2002). Music: A link between cognition and emotion. Current directions in psychological science, 11(2), 45-50.
    • 自传体会议(Autobiographical recall)
    • 情境诱发:例如抛球游戏
    • 想象:阅读插图,发挥想象
  • 情绪诱发过程的时间变化:
    1. 外周(Bradley, M. M., Codispoti, M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (2001). Emotion and motivation I: Defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing. Emotion, 1(3), 276.)
    2. 中枢(Chen, S., Yu, K., Yang, J., & Yuan, J. (2020). Automatic reappraisal based implementation intention produces early and sustainable emotion regulation effects: Event-related potential evidence. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 89.)
    3. 总结

挫折情绪的诱发

  • 无论何种挫折任务,一般先要告诉被试有一个奖励。然后被试遭遇人为困难,无法取得奖励,从而诱发其挫折感受。
  • 挫折的诱发往往属于痛苦耐受力(distress tolerance, DT)的一部分。DT的行为测量往往包括痛苦的诱发,例如生理疼痛(冰水实验)、挫折(负反馈)和焦虑(演讲)等,并且给被试随时在承受不住时中止痛苦来源的选择。

  • 与决策任务不同,挫折任务的核心在于负反馈,让被试产生功亏一篑的感觉。决策实验中的正负反馈,其在实验目的中的权重基本是相等的,典型指导语如让被试自我尝试,赢得最多的钱。而挫折任务中的正反馈一般是伪试次,一方面是为了避免练习效应,一方面是为了给被试营造出即将完成目标的假象。
  • 经典任务:
    1. Mirror Tracing Persistence Task (MTPT; Strong et al., 2003)
    2. Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT; Lejuez, Kahler, & Brown, 2003)
    3. Distress Tolerance Test (Nock & Mendes, 2008),
  • 主观自我报告指标(self-report measure):
    1. the level of agreement with statements such as “feeling distressed or upset is unbearable to me” (Distress Tolerance Scale [DTS]; Simons & Gaher, 2005)
    2. “I’ll do anything to stop feeling distressed or upset” (Discomfort Intolerance Index; McHugh & Otto, 2012)
  • 行为指标(behavioral measure): 从实验开始到北师中止DT任务的时长是DT的典型指标,称之为Latency to end the distress。
  • 需要注意的是,自我报告和行为指标这两个模态,并不总是存在相关。Researchers have suggested that there are fundamental differences between participants’ perception of their ability to tolerate distress (assessed with self-report measures) and their actual behavioral persistence in the face of an aversive task (assessed with behavioral measures; McHugh et al., 2011; McHugh & Otto, 2011).

Social rejection (社会拒绝)

  • 抛球游戏

BIRD任务

  • 遇险复原力行为指标 Behavioural Indicator of Resiliency to Distress (BIRD, Lejuez et al.) 痛苦耐受性 (DT) 是精神病理学的跨诊断风险因素。BIRD 任务通过测量任务在遭遇挫折(Frustration or Distress)时的持久性( task persistence)来评估 DT。
  • 任务说明:The participant is presented with a screen that shows a bird inside of a birdcage and ten numbered boxes in a row. A green dot randomly moves above the boxes. The participant’s goal is to click on the numbered box below the green dot, before the dot moves. Subjects hear a pleasant sound and are awarded points each time they succeed in doing this. However, an unpleasant sound is played whenever the subjects do not click the box in time. Subjects can press a button to abort the game.
  • 注意: BIRD 评估适用于 6-85 岁的儿童和成人。
  • 参考文献:
    • Battistutta, L., & Steffgen, G. (2018). Frustration inducing tasks as tools for assessing adolescent emotion regulation.

MPTP

  • Mirror Tracing Persistence Task (MPTP; Strong et al., 2003)

Frustration‐induction procedure (FIP)

  • 说明:The FIP任务改编自Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST,威斯康星卡片分类测验),要求被试对四种花色和四种颜色的卡片进行排序。告诉被试需要连续成功10次排序就可以赢得一个礼物(如一盒巧克力)。但实验设置为前9次无论正确与否都为成功,最后一次无论正确与否都为失败。被试可以在任何时候按空格退出实验。因变量为被试坚持的时间。
  • 参考文献:
    • Henna, E., Zilberman, M. L., Gentil, V., & Gorenstein, C. (2008). Validity of a frustration-induction procedure. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 47-49.

无解几何图形追踪任务the unsolvable tracing task used by Roberts et al (2019)

  • It’s more typically referred to as a ‘frustration tolerance task’ or an ‘ego depletion paradigm’ than a stress induction per se, but it serves a similar purpose. Other challenging cognitive tests (e.g. serial sevens task) can also be used in the same way.
  • Roberts, A. C., Yap, H. S., Kwok, K. W., Car, J., Chee-Kiong, S. O. H., & Christopoulos, G. I. (2019). The cubicle deconstructed: Simple visual enclosure improves perseverance. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 63, 60-73.
  • 自控损耗(ego depletion)测量的方法、问题及展望
  • Veilleux, J. C., Pollert, G. A., Zielinski, M. J., Shaver, J. A., & Hill, M. A. (2019). Behavioral assessment of the negative emotion aspect of distress tolerance: Tolerance to emotional images. Assessment, 26(3), 386-403.

Stress and Emotional trait

  • 实验室内,我们用情绪刺激来诱发暂时的的情绪。但有些情绪状态是持续性的,例如高考前的焦虑不安(压力)。
  • 比压力更稳定的情绪特征就是个体的情绪特质。生长环境可能会塑造出个体不同的情绪特质,例如有的人整体乐呵呵,有的人愁眉苦脸。情绪特质是个体稳定的加工和表达情绪的人格特征。

Stress

  • 日常生活中的各种各样的压力,才是我们长期情绪状态的源头。例如,学生群体要面对长达十几年的学业压力,工作后的成年人要面对几十年的工作压力和家庭压力,而最终的老年人又要面对来自健康和死亡的压力。
  • 压力一般用问卷来测量。压力知觉量表(Perceived stress scale),中文版(Chinese Perceived Stress Scale,CPSS)
  • 生活事件压力量表(Life Event Scale,LES)是由霍姆斯和黎黑编制的,这个量表研究了构成压力的事件以及这些压力所构成的压力大小(LCU)。

Trait

  • PANAS, 既可以测量状态性的情绪状态,也可以测量个体的积极和消极情绪特质
  • 大五神经质问卷

References

  • Keywords: elicitation
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  • 游园园, 邓欣媚, & 赛李阳. (2019). 儿童与成人对社会和非社会正性情绪刺激的脑电反应特征比较. 心理科学, 42(02), 313–321.
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